The John Peter Zenger Trial

The John Peter Zenger Trial John Peter Zenger was born in Germany in 1697. He immigrated to New York with his family in 1710. His father died during the voyage, and his mother, Joanna, was left to support him and his two siblings. At the age of 13, Zenger was apprenticed for eight years to the prominent printer William Bradford who is known as the pioneer printer of the middle colonies. They would form a brief partnership after the apprenticeship before Zenger decided to open his own printing shop in 1726. When Zenger would be later brought to trial, Bradford would remain neutral in the case.   Zenger Approached by Former Chief Justice Zenger was approached by Lewis Morris, a chief justice who had been removed from the bench by Governor William Cosby after he ruled against him. Morris and his associates created the â€Å"Popular Party† in opposition to Governor Cosby and needed a newspaper to help them spread the word. Zenger agreed to print their paper as the New York Weekly Journal. Zenger Arrested for Seditious Libel At first, the governor ignored the newspaper which made claims against the governor including his having arbitrarily removed and appointed judges without consulting the legislature. However, once the paper began to grow in popularity, he decided to put  a stop to it.  Zenger was arrested and a formal charge of seditious libel was made against him on November 17, 1734. Unlike today where libel is only proven when the published information is not only false but intended to harm the individual, libel at this time was defined as holding the king or his agents up to public ridicule. It did not matter how true the printed information was. Despite the charge, the governor was unable to sway a grand jury. Instead, Zenger was arrested based on prosecutors’ â€Å"information,† a way to circumvent the grand jury. Zengers case was taken before a jury. Zenger Defended by Andrew Hamilton Zenger was defended by Andrew Hamilton, a Scottish lawyer who would eventually settle in Pennsylvania. He was not related to Alexander Hamilton. However, he was important in later Pennsylvania history, having helped design Independence Hall. Hamilton took the case on pro bono. Zengers original lawyers had been stricken from the attorneys list due to the corruption that surrounded the case. Hamilton was able to successfully argue to the jury that Zenger was allowed to print things as long as they were true. In fact, when he was not allowed to prove that the claims were true through evidence, he was able to eloquently argue to the jury that they saw the evidence in their everyday lives and therefore didnt need additional proof. Results of the Zenger Case The result of the case did not create a legal precedent because a jury’s verdict does not change the law. However, it had a huge impact on the colonists who saw the importance of a free press to hold the government power in check. Hamilton was lauded by New York colonial leaders for his successful defense of Zenger. Nonetheless, individuals would continue to be punished for publishing information harmful to the government until state constitutions and later the US Constitution in the Bill of Rights would guarantee a free press. Zenger continued to publish the New York Weekly Journal until his death in 1746. His wife continued to publish the paper after his death. When his eldest son, John, took over the business he only continued to publish the paper for three more years.

A Close Analysis for a Single Scene in the Film Farewell My Concubine Movie Review

A Close Analysis for a Single Scene in the Film Farewell My Concubine - Movie Review Example 10. Camera shifts back to Douzi in a close-up shot. He pauses as he realizes his error. This is a one second shot. 11. The next is a medium shot that is taken from behind Douzi as it shows his back. The camera focuses a medium shot at Mister Na as he gets up from his bench. The scene shows Mister Na deliberately walking past Douzi and progressing forward. 12. A close-up shot of Xiaolou standing with other performers with a very annoyed expression on his face. 1 second. 13. The camera shows medium shot in natural light as Mister Na progresses towards the veranda followed by Guan and performers. It also shows Douzi moving towards him as well. Mister Na progresses out of the frame. Xiaolou snatches a tobacco pipe from Master Lian’s hand. The camera now focuses on Xiaolou who spots Douzi and grabs him by the collar and shakes him. 14. The music becomes loud as Xiaolou keeps on shaking Douzi and drags him forward. 15. A 1 second shot of Mister Na, Guan and other elders stopping and looking at what is causing the commotion. 16. Another close-up shot of Douzi being shoved into a chair. 1 second 17. A sharp close-up shot of Xiaolou‘s face very angry and covered in tears. 2 seconds 18. A close-up of Douzi being shaken. Loud music with Xiaolou screaming at Douzi and asking him to open his mouth. Xiaolou shoves the hooked tip of the tobacco pipe towards it. 19. A medium 1 second shot of Mister Na and others staring horrified at the camera. 20. Next is a close-up of Douzi as he opens his mouth. A single frame shot of Xiaolou with his teeth clenched. The tobacco pipe is rammed into Douzi’s mouth and shoved back and forth like a toothbrush on the tongue. Douzi closes his eyes and tilts his head backward. 6 seconds 21. 1 second shot of Xiaolou struggling with the tobacco...Another character Mister Na is introduced in this scene who has been appointed to evaluate the performers of the opera for Zhag’s birthday celebration.The acting done by the boys at this age is very impressive and natural. Especially young Douzi’s role involved a lot of gestures and face expressions, which were delivered to perfection. The character Douzi appears to be central in this scene. However, character movement in this scene involves three central figures Mister Na, Douzi and Xiaolou. Mister Na’s character requires for him to move very rapidly in the scene with little attention to his surroundings, he appears to be a busy man who does not want to spare the time of the day for boys in Peking Opera. Xialou appears to be the bossy and ruthless character in this scene, his movement is purposeful and almost cruel as he attempts to protect the reputation of the Peking Opera. Douzi’s character shows a range of emotions. While delivering his lines as dan, he acts with the poise and gentleness that the role demands. Yet when Xiaolou punishes him for his error, Douzi shows extreme strength and tolerance and accepts the punishments as his f ate.

English - Writing Directions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

English - Writing Directions - Essay Example The following flow chart will help to clarify the actions that will be described: Choose a paint color and buy it ? set up the equipment and lay down the drop cloths ?put blue tape for delicate surfaces against all the edges ? use an angled brush to outline all the close edges ? open the can and stir the paint ? use a roller brush to fill in all the spaces in an X pattern After considering this flow chart, these are the directions. Instructions for Painting a Wall Painting a wall can be a source of achievement and pride when the room looks dingy and needs to be made to look fresh and alive. The area around the wall should be cleared away so that access to all portions is made convenient and clear of items that could be in the way. Equipment must either be gathered or purchased, so the first thing to do once the wall area is clear is to make a list of everything that is needed, including the paint. Choosing the paint color is the first step in deciding to paint a wall. This can be don e before the process begins or during the initial step as the equipment is being gathered. The wall will need to be taped off so that the edge beyond what is desired painted is protected. A two inch angled brush is used to paint near the tape, allowing for a clean edge that has not bled into the space that is not desired to be painted. The walls are then rolled in an x pattern so that there are no roller marks. When this is done, it is allowed to dry and then the tape removed in order to check for bleeds. The equipment is cleaned up and the room put back into order. The following instructions will outline exactly how to do each of the steps involved in painting a wall. 1. The first step in painting a wall is in clearing away the items around the space in front of the wall. This means that there should be enough room in front of the wall to put up a ladder. The ladder should allow access to every space of the wall that will be painted 2. The second step is to make a materials list, g ather what is already on hand and go purchase the materials that are yet needed. Steps one and two are interchangeable, but it can be preferable to have my work space clear and to see exactly what will be required for the job. 3. A basic materials list includes screwdrivers, spackle, blue delicate surface tape, two inch angle brush, roller pan, roller, roller head, and ladder. Do not forget the paint! 4. The third step is to choose the paint color, again interchangeable with steps 1 and 2. A paint color can be chosen long before the job will be done or during the trip to the store when all other materials needed will be purchased. One method of choosing a paint color is gathering paint sample cards from a store and taping them to the wall. There are many ways to choose a color and that will be up to the buyer. When purchasing materials, purchase the paint and it is recommended to use one of the new paints that have primer in them in order to get good coverage on the wall. 5. Once th e materials are brought to the site of the wall they must be organized. First, tools required to take off electrical plates and to fix any holes in the wall should go to one side of the wall away from the painting equipment and placed securely away from the wall so they can be grabbed, but not in the way. The floor should be covered with drop cloths to protect it from spills and drops that might damage

Field inventory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Field inventory - Essay Example e of the church is captured in their website that acknowledges that visiting a new church can be quite an intimidating experience, and, therefore, it is the objective to make any visitor to feel welcomed and at home as much as possible. I had previously visited this church in 2013 and had gathered quite a considerable amount of information from those two visits. The members of the church participate in intense praise and worship sessions. The worship takes various different forms in the church and include hymns of praise, prayers sessions, conduction of praise sessions together with the accompaniment of instruments such as the guitar, tambourine. This also includes the creation of a warm and welcoming environment as done by the welcoming committee at the door that welcome the worshippers with a handshake and a warm smile. Their services start at 9.30 am each Sunday morning which are also available as podcasts for downloading and online listening. There are different types of services to serve the different age groups that exist in the church. Therefore they have different services for the adults as in the parents, the young adults and for the smaller children. The atmosphere at CCML is a very friendly one and I was constantly getting introductions to individuals that were ready to welcome me and offer their assistance in incorporating me into the church community. I had the chance of meeting a senior member of the church who has a son that works with one of the biggest firms in Saudi Arabia. We exchanged our contact information promising to assist each other if the need to do so ever arose. I started to get to know the operation of the church and its core mission within the society. The mission of the organization is phrased as knowing, growing and loving. The church’s mission is to worship together as a community made up of a group of closely knit members, who grow and obtain spiritual maturity through discipleship, and education. The mission of the Chu rch is to

Journal Entry - assigment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Journal Entry - assigment - Assignment Example male contestant had no intention of abiding by the contract, using her emotional responses to deceive the male contestant, holding the belief that she had succeeded in convincing him of her sincerity. The secondary motivation, under contractarianism, is making concessions with a moral code of action attached for the pursuit of self-interest. In this case, the male contestant abides by contractarianism theory as he made it clear that he was consciously aware of the potential consequences from the judging audience for not abiding by the mutual split deal. The female contestant, also, was consciously aware of these judgments, but instead chose to fulfill her own self-interest rather than abide by the agreement. It had previously been my view that people are, in actuality, selfish individuals. The male contestant was a prime example of contractarianism, while the female contestant was willing to succumb to moral judgment and the stigma of immorality to pursue her maximum self-gain. Though the female contestant supported Hobbs’ claim, she tended to refute the theory of contractarianism by not allowing the shame or disgrace that she would carry to be enough motivation to abide by the social contract with her opponent. By witnessing an individual willing to abide by the contract, it instilled a new sense of faith in the moral constructs of some in society and supports that notion that there are some who will act appropriately to avoid causing harm to others. The male contestant could have easily chosen the Steal ball as this would have maximized his own position if he had been convinced of the female contestant’s morality. The male contestant believed that cooperation could be of benefit to both parties, therefore he showed legitimate concern at the moral level for the well-being of his opponent. The male contestant believed that moral justice by securing the needs of both contracted parties was morally preferable over attempting to achieve receipt of the entire

Ethical And Environmental Factors Essay Example for Free

Ethical And Environmental Factors Essay The state of Belina is situated in the sub-Saharan region. The countries in the sub-Saharan region have suffered a lot for many years. Most African countries in the sub-Saharan parts have been depicted to be suffering heavily due to the low industrialization level in the region. The transformation of country’s economics together with the changes of living standards of the people begin with education, which is brings about technology changes. Education in the region has been low with just most people attaining the elementary education. There are a few elites with higher education whom the state hope would transform their states. (Williams, 2004. pp 95) The governments of the sub-Saharan states have encouraged their investors by offering them favoring production and investment terms. As the past investment reveals, the investments which have been conducted in the African countries has adversely affected them. There is unfathomable damage and disadvantages which have been created as result of industrial development within many African states. This ranges from the high rates of there natural resource exploitation as well as human labor exploitations to the adverse environmental changes they have implicated. Davidson, 1992, pp402) Despite all the investment made within the sub-Saharan countries, energy investment has received low investors. Due to the low energy production in the region the majority of the people in the region are believed to be subjected to abject poverty. As the people within the region suffer a lot, the energy scarcity has contributed to the low economic growth. Introduction The energy demand has eminently risen in many countries allover the globe over the mid and the last century. This has been as result of rapid developments in the industrial sector as well as in the revolution in technology. Besides this industrialization factor, the state population has also increased several folds. The state populations have been increasing in high rate, thus it has multiplied more than 4 times between 1985 and 2005. The energy demand has increased twelve times within this particular period. This has lead to the government and other individuals to embark on more resources for energy. This indicates the important aspect the country men leaders attaches to the energy production. The people from the sub-Saharan countries such as the belina community should be cautious of the environmental impact that any industrial development might have in there livelihoods. Many people have developed technologically leading to industrialization, but the development which has been done also turned out as draw backs to future generations. The American and the United Kingdom states such as Germany and the Japan are such developed countries which are currently savaging from such development. This is because any technology which is introduced within the state should perpetually yield positive more advantages than its disadvantages. (Munasinghe, 2005, pp 35-48) The effects of energy productions plants are similar to those of other processing and manufacturing plants. While the industrialized countries are savaging from great environmental pollution, there has been campaigns on environmental control. The impacts of environmental pollutions are globally felt. The energy producer companies and the consumers companies of such energies have both been major contributors to the scourge felt. As the effects of global warming are being felt, the sub-Saharan countries seem to be in worse hit. This is because global warming has affected the good climatic conditions under which they have thrived in economics means. This climatic change has been associated with the industrialized countries of which most of them are much far from the continent. Due to the above consideration, the government of belina has an obligation of considering such campaigns of eliminating and discarding the energy companies interested in investments that has got inadequate pollution control measures. For this reason, the government has to view those companies having the utilization of old traditional methods as environmentally unfriendly and also some of those modern technology methods which are not renewable. Energy sources and their effects The old traditional energy sources have greatly led to the advancement of our production. They have been credited for they have enabled men to the discoveries which were fundamental for high productions. However, this old traditional methods of energy sources have now created another milestone of environmental clean up. The major traditional energy sources which are available range from the fossils to wood and to some extent the reactive elements used in the nuclear powers. These have continued for long being in use, and even today, they form ninety percent of the energy produced and consumed world wide. The application of energy resources such as coal, natural gas, petroleum products as well as uranium have for long been used. These are all non-renewable sources which have high risk of depletion besides high hazards to the environment and the people handling them. The fossils fuels have only been of continued used initially as they were plentiful and inexpensive. However, these advantages are no longer valuable as there are other means for which energy has been produced cheaply and with consistency. Usually, the consumption of these substances and their products has now been a major risk to the country consuming them. The consumption of these substances has generated numerous air pollutants and other air by-products which have lead to global climatic changes. Coal as energy resources take millions of years to be formed. Despite this, it is historically disputed as a threat to the miners/ workforce and also as an environmental hazard. While petroleum has served for long in the transportation systems and other industrial sectors like manufacturing of plastic and synthetic fabric, it has also posed greater dangers to the environment of our people. The spillage which may occur within the seas and rivers during its transportation to the power plants creates a lot of stress and tension to the environment. This significantly destroys our rivers, seas and marines live, hence the whole aquatic live. This not only affects the water ecosystems but they also leading to endangering the human life through food chain systems. The natural gas products are also enormously boosting both agricultural production and our health through their application in the medical systems. Although the natural gas seems to contribute much towards environmental conservation, the methane gas has got enormous effects which relates to the greenhouse effects. (Hall and Mao, 1994, pp 234) The non-renewable fossil energy sources are indiscriminately disastrous to the environment. The extraction of these fossils causes many changes to the soil structures hence causes disturbances to the soil. Apart from affecting the soil and its inhabitants, the method of extraction causes disturbances in the water systems, which my lead to diversion of the water ways making a particular region to experience unexpected dryness water scarcity while other part enjoys plenty of water availability. Vegetation and other significant resources are not spared either and this perhaps affects the whole ecosystem of the region which may act as tourism attraction centre. The twentieth century has endeavored to utilize the technology advances on combating with the problem of limited energy. Undoubtedly the discovery of the nuclear energy was a period of great hope to the world. Many individuals thought that nuclear energies would save the world from its limited natural resources as elements are quite abundant. The believed results turned out as unfulfilling very soon. Just after the introductory of this energy production technique, numerous fearful cases were reported allover the world. As with the Japanese case, many countries were apprehended with awesome fear as the enormous disaster left behind with the prolong killing of people. As well known, any excess without control is dangerous. Due to excess energy that is generated, the nuclear energy mistakes left thousands of the Japanese killed and many others injured. The state is also suffering from this long historical happening even after heavily assistance to curb the radiation effects. Many are born disabled due to affected human molding factors. The non-renewable based companies may thus find no way of solving the Belina problem of energy crisis. (Ministry of Water, Energy and Mining, 1988, pp 16) The struggle for the belina energy shortage takes the alternative energy sources. This adopts the issues of renewable energy sources. The Belina is positioned within the advantageous positions of the world. The fact that Belina lies in the sub-Saharan region; there is an immeasurable advantages over other countries which lies in the far ends of the artic and Antarctic of the globe. Being in the sub-Saharan region, it has the full advantage of utilizing the major world energy sources which is believed as the sun. The state does not have to succumb to the developed states demands on favors which will bring them more future life uncertainty. However, the country would need to tap the solar energy which is availed for twelve plus hour in a day. The use of this energy has not only been praised for its natural occurrence but it has been environmentally friendly. It is the best natural occurring clean energy in spites of its limited amounts that depend on the intensity of the sun. Furthermore, solar plant installation clears only a minute piece of land affecting a few vegetation cover. (World Bank, 1989, pp 23) Windmills have transformed the lives of many people living in the sub-Saharan and sub-Saharan states. Windmill energy production is thus a rapidly growing energy sources, this is thriving well in places where wind is freely blowing such as the ones experienced in the Belina. The wind blowing along the ridges and others part are potentially trapping position of energy to the industries. This would mitigate the lives of the communities by enhancing economic growths while maintaining the low effects which are short lived such as vegetation clearing on the wind pathways. Although, this may affect the country economy, it is anticipated the most hit sector is the tourism which depend on birds as their attraction means. The killing of such birds by the blades of turbines is quite minimal as compared to the energy non-renewable sources (Ministry of Water, Energy and Mining, 1988, pp 16) As the country come to the culmination of industrialization leading it to the level of developed state, the urban centre would be highly populated more than the cities are packed now. This will lead to an unimaginable sanitary state of the city environment. The living places of the people are now ravaged and littered with garbage from fruit refuse and other organic plant litters. This is making the people to live barely struggling to breathe for pure oxygen. This poses great threat of health hazards to the people. The chances of endemic and epidemic are now in the verge of being rampant in the region. But, with the modern technology, the people in the cities and other metropolitan can be saved with the utilization of the refuse both for the energy production and for economic agricultural production through soils enrichment. It will be a prime reason for not investing on others energy forms while refuse is indirectly and directly disseminating diseases to the population of the nation (Johansson, 1993, pp 96-118) The investment in bio-fuel and other biomass degradable materials has lead to the production of products such as gasohol, gasoline and many other products. The products have been a means of saving the countries from the energy crisis which is associated to the over dependency on non-renewable energy sources. Apart from their application by other states as energy alternative, they have an impact on the maintenance of stable prices of the products from the factories, making the products affordable to the consumers in poverty stricken states such as those in the sub-Saharan regions. (Sokona, 2002, pp 145) Conclusion The energy crisis and shortage to countries in the sub-Saharan region has contributed to the persistence of great suffering of the people due to poverty high level. However, the investment on energy production to solve the problem should be a careful process that does not impact adversely both in the environmental factors as well as in the ethical factors. The traditional energy sources have been major contributors to the worse economic conditions of the people in the sub-Saharan states. This can thus be altered by the adaptation of the energy production methods which are renewable. References: Davidson O. (1992): Energy Issues in Sub-Saharan Africa: Annual Review of Energy and Environment Vol. 17 pp401-403. Hall, D. and Mao, Y. (1994): Biomass and Coal in Africa. London Johansson, T. et al (1993): Renewable Energy:. Island Press Ministry of Water, Energy and Mining, (1988): Lesotho Energy Master Plan: GTZ and Department of Energy World Bank, (1989) Sub-Saharan Africa From Crisis to Sustainable Growth: The World Bank. Williams, J. (2004). Sustainable development in Africa: is the climate right? IRI Technical Report Munasinghe, M. (2005). Primer on climate change and sustainable development: Cambridge University Press. Sokona, Y. (2002) Think bigger, act faster: a new sustainable energy path for African development: University of Cape

The use of child labour to maximise profits

The use of child labour to maximise profits Many companies agree that  maximising profit is a key aspect of their  business objectives. To what extent, then, is it justifiable for them to utilise child labour in carrying out this goal? (3153 words). In this paper, the main focus will be on child labour and the issues surrounding the topic. I will consider how businesses behave in regards to child labour, both from a business and an ethical point of view. There are two key arguments; should businesses utilise cheap labour to lower production costs? Or do they have a duty of care in order to prevent children being exploited within their business? For the purpose of this essay I will examine various theories in conjunction with how businesses apply them. For example, I will analyse the Milton Friedman theory of business, in regards to multinational companies, and how it affects their behaviour towards child labour. Other theories to be considered include Marxism, Egoism and Ethics of Right. In conclusion I will assess how companies behave towards the issue of child labour; as an ethical and financial advantage, or as an unethical view. I will also give contemporary examples of child employment. Often child labour is confused with child work but Whittaker claims that there is a clear distinction. For example, a child performing a newspaper delivery before going to school is a child worker: This is because there is no economic compulsion forcing the child into employment. Rather the child keeps his wages and spends them on such peer group necessities as the latest style jeans, records or, increasingly, videos and home computers. By and large nobody forces him to go to work. (1986, p20) Lavalette (1994, p.8) However, child labour is defined as: Work which does not take place under such relatively idyllic conditions. It is defined as having an element of economic compulsion associated with it and, according to Fyfe, involves time and energy commitment which affects childrens ability to participate in leisure, play and educational activities. Finally, child labour is work which impairs the health and development of children (Fyfe 1989, p4) Lavalette (1994, p.8) Michael Lavalette (1994) explains that child labour exists because of two reasons: Children are an example of a reserve army of labour, drawn into the labour market when it is tight to provide extra labour power. Lavalette (1994, p.2) This suggests that when labour is in high demand and there are insufficient adult workers, businesses tend to use children as a back up. Secondly, Children work in backward regions of the economy where unemployment is highest and poverty most severe. In these circumstances children work to alleviate their familys hardship. Lavalette (1994, p.2) This means that child employment occurs mainly in poverty and where the children have to support their family financially. Many people frown upon this exploitation of children. But one must consider to what extent is child employment justified? Many children in poverty try to avoid stressors such as violence, sexual or emotional abuse. One of the easiest ways for children to avoid these stressors is by engaging in active labour. Thus, from a childs point of view, it can be justified for children should work to in order to avoid being emotionally, sexually or violently abused. Consideration must be given to the employers view. Due to globalisation, outsourcing has become a trend in businesses. By outsourcing, it is possible for firms to exploit wage differentials around the world. This then allows for production at a much lower cost, and therefore maximises business profit. However, this approach is argued to be very unethical and shows how profit driven business objectives relate to the the Milton Friedman concept: Friedman argued that the social responsibility of business is to seek profits for the stockholders Bowie (2002, p.2) This indirectly suggests that in order to lower costs and to promote profit maximising prospects that arise with globalisation, businesses need to take advantage of these global opportunities, otherwise they may be forced out of the market by other competitive firms, Globalization and liberalization of markets and intensifying competition in commodity markets have increased demand for labour in developing countries. There has been a significant outsourcing of economic production from the developed countries to the developing countries due to globalization. Anon (1982, p.5) This further supports that The successful quest for cheaper labour implies child labour. Rahikainen (2004, p.210) This gives further weight to the argument that Children are the most subordinate and cheapest form of labour, thus highly attractive to some types of employer Fyfe (1989, p. 17) All of the quotes above interlink with each other to explain why companies use children as a cheap form of labour. The levels of child exploitation and oppression are significantly higher where there is no, or limited, regulation for childrens labour market activities, where legal requirements are easily and consistently ignored Lavalette (1994, p.13) The majority of companies believe survival is essential in a globalised economy and therefore they exploit these conditions to fulfil outsourcing opportunities, because they. The majority of child labour is said to occur in Asia. Save The Children estimates that 61% of working children live in Asia Youth Information (accessed 25 April 2009) Labour-intensive consumer-goods industries increased productivity by pressing the advantages of the division of labour, and cut wage costs by the extensive employment of women and children. Rahikainen (2004, p. 32) Some children are exploited to do certain adult jobs because they can perform the task more effectively and efficiently In certain industries like copper making and electronic assembly, children are more skilful because of the dexterity of their small fingers. But children, because of their dependent position, are the most easily exploited of all workers Fyfe (1989, p.32) The world of work (employers and other unscrupulous people) seems to pull children because they are very cheap and obedient, can be easily exploited, do certain things more efficiently and effectively which adults fail to do (e.g. Nimble Fingers). Herath and Sharma (2007, p.56) This is a way of decreasing wage costs because children are doing adult work, but are not being paid the adult wage. The managers are able to exert more control and authority over children, because they are less likely to retaliate in comparison to adult workers who are aware of their employment rights. This is very money driven based business and can be related to the ethical theory of consequnetialist, a consequence based approach, the egoism theory. Egoism refers, in terms of philosophy, to theories in which self-interest is regarded as the principal motivating factor Encarta (2009) Which in this case the self interest would be profit. This can relate to child labour as all they care about is lowering costs and increasing sales to increase profit not human rights of children. This deduces that they ARE self motivated by money (self interest) hence following the egoism theory. However Lavalette stated that Fyfe and Whittaker suggested Child labour can be either good or bad depending on the context in which it takes place Lavalette (1994, p. 8) Businesses can see child labour to be an advantage not only because of lower costs, but as it is taking children off the streets. They support children by providing a job and maybe even benefits (depending on the company). This gives the company an ethically moral image because they are seen to be providing child employees with basic needs. This helps the children lead a healthy life, which they may not receive by living on the streets. Where children are individually employed, they may be paid in kind, receiving board and lodging in the household of their employer Anon (1982, p. 480) Moreover, by companies not employing children, there is a danger that they could be out on the streets and involved in prostitution, drugs or crime. Those underage who would be saved from child labour for example, from working on carpets or footballs could be driven into prostitution or destitution. Munck (2002, p.130) And as a result of employing children it is shown that Child labours are better off than a great number of children elsewhere who do not work, but who do not eat Lavalette (1994, p.44) However not all child employees live on the street, some also hold the responsibility of their familys well being instead. Poverty forces families to send their children out to scratch whatever meagre living they can to help the family survive Lavalette (1994, p.13) Moreover, this supports that Childrens income is frequently far from supplementary: they may be de facto breadwinners, supporting other members of their family Anon (1982, p. 487) Furthermore, it gives the employer the image that they are helping children who have the burden of caring for their families. Furthermore, this extends the good corporate image, which, as a result could increase sales. This is because there is a greater awareness of this exploitation, but some see the advantages for the children and therefore promote the cause by purchasing the products to keep the children in a job and not in poverty or on the streets. However peoples perspective tends to differ. Proscribing child labour in the south without compensation would lower the living standards of those who are already desperately poor. Munck (2002, p.130) This give weight to the idea that all the advantages that both businesses and children gain from child labour, whether it keeps children off the streets or to support their family, or businesses gaining cheap labour would be removed by legislation to abolish child labour. This is not necessarily the right thing to do depending on what peoples perceptions are; whether children need to survive through active employment, or the fact that they are just children and that they should live like a child and not be required to undertake the stresses and physical damage working does to a child. This leads onto the next argument, that companies should help abolish child exploitation and should hold ethical and social responsibilities. Some companies avoid child labour because they want to be known as socially responsible. An example; GAP, in October 2007 a ten year old was found in the back streets in New Delhi the conditions were quoted by the Observer to be close to slavery, he was sold by his parents to the sweatshop making gap toddler clothing. But as Gap wants to be known as socially responsible their policy they enforced was: that if it discovers children being used by contractors to make its clothes that contractor must remove the child from the workplace, provide it with access to schooling and a wage, and guarantee the opportunity of work on reaching a legal working age. McDougall (2007) The only reason that this unethical employment of children wasnt revealed any sooner to Gap was that they were subcontracting companies who hired child labour however they did say that they still hold fully responsible; After learning of this situation, we immediately took steps to stop this work order and to prevent the product from ever being sold in our stores. McDougall (2007) In recent years Gap has made efforts to rebrand itself as a leader in ethical and socially responsible manufacturing, after previously being criticised for practices including the use of child labour. McDougall (2007) This is an example of taking corporate social responsibility which gives the company a better image. Other revelations of companies associated with child labour include Primark which took actions and decided not to trade with the suppliers anymore and took their clothing off the shelf. Nike also established rules to increase the minimum age workers to 18 in Asian footwear factories and to offer free educational classes and to improve the air quality of the plants. However, There is ample evidence that child-wage labourers continue to work even when minimum age legislation exists. Fyfe (1989, p.17) This shows that some businesses are not socially responsible and breaching the Acts provided to protect the children from exploitation, and therefore should follow the steps to correct their actions. This could be what Karl Marx proposed in The Communist Manifesto: Free education for all children in public schools. Abolition of childrens factory labor in its present form. Combination of education with industrial production, etc. Marx (1884) His view was simple in that all companies should abolish child labour and children should be entitled to have free education and by following and providing this, it would help offset the businesss image as child employers to an image of socially and ethically responsible. Additionally the company should take care when sub-contracting to make sure that no child labour is associated with them and not just within its own business. It is small scale enterprises or sweatshops, often operating as subcontractors to larger enterprises, that are most adept at avoiding the usually inadequate factory inspectorate Fyfe (1989, p. 17) Even though large companies are against breaching human rights they still need to look carefully at who they are contracting. An ethical policy that should be pursued by companies is ethics of rights, which states that every human being has basic rights and freedoms that they are entitled to from birth and should be respected by others in every way. If an individual has a moral right, then it is morally wrong to interfere with that right even if large numbers of people would benefit from such interference. Velasquez et all (1990) By exploiting human rights, the corporate image perceived by potential customers would be lacking of corporate social responsibilities. This can have an adverse effect in the number of sales. Moreover, in the short term by exploiting human rights and employing children could lower costs, but the longer term consequence of this approach could lowers sales figures. This could be that customers disregard any product that hasnt been fairly made or is unethical. Therefore, by employing children, it does not give a large margin of advantages. This matter of exploitation could also attract protestors or agencies that are all about protecting children, for example UNICEF. They can create a bad image for the business. This can attract the media and possibly authorities leading to fines and prosecution of breaching Acts. For example, the Children and Young Persons Act 1933. On another point, employing children is cheap but the efficiency and quality of the work is sometimes not up to the minimum standard depending on the work so technically the company loses out by quality hence sales figures are affected. Children who undertake adult work tasks: do not possess the physical and mental capacity that these jobs call for, and their work is usually done less efficiently than if it were performed by an adult Lavalette (1994, p.44) This depends on the jobs but in this case I refer to the job being hard manual work. There are many disadvantages for a child starting work at an early age Child labourers are usually dismissed once they become adults, forcing them to join ranks of the unemployed. The low-level skills they have gained are often insufficient to allow them to obtain further paid employment Herath and Sharma (2007, p. 39) Even though the children are being fed it does not mean that they are living a healthy life. In 28 countries, the average per capita intake of calories is 73 to 89 per cent of what is required but it is lower for the poorer segment of the population, from which most working children come, even though their work raises their nutritional requirements. Working children also become more susceptible to infectious diseases including tuberculosis, if they suffer from malnutrition, anaemia, fatigue and inadequate sleep. Fyfe (1989, p. 21) Child labour causes not only loss of formal education and human capital but also the lack of social and cognitive skills and increased health hazards Herath and Sharma (2007, p. 18) It is argued that every child should have a childhood where they play and to be educated to better their future. Children are not little adults their fundamental right is to childhood itself Fyfe (1993, p. 5) Businesses should help their child employees found within the business to clear their name and their image that are perceived to be by the public. This should include free education and any other actions to correct this exploitation this will in the long run help with the corporate image and sales and potential employees in the future. In conclusion children are among the most vulnerable and powerless and continue to be exploited as part of a downward push on costs and a rapid withering of decent, formal employment. Solidarity Center (2008) There seems to be ample evidence to support the school of thought that child employment is acceptable, because companies are keeping children off the streets, prostitution etc. Some businesses try to be labelled as socially responsible instead of child labourers as they strive to give good benefits such as the right health and safety measures, schooling, food and shelter and many others. However 2 questions that I find myself to ask: Does giving benefits make them socially respectable for still employing young children? Just because they are giving them benefits does that mean that it counteracts that children at a young age are being worked? Is this still ethically right that they have to work for education? (a basic right for any child). Does this remove the idea that they are child labours just because they give the children benefits? Another argument is that the businesses may claim they are giving all these benefits, but how do we know as part of the public that the businesses are carrying out these promises as we do not have an insight within the business? Overall, if companies argue that they are helping the children but are infringing on human rights in order to stay in the market with other competitors, it shows clearly that their aim is to compete with other companies and to gain maximum profit which shows how egoism theory of self interest (in this case profit) and Milton Friedmans theory of businesses work for profit only. This relates to the money driven mind and a lack of respect for human rights whatever the age. Such companies and should follow Karl Marx proposal and respect human rights. The loss in profits from abandoning child labour will be offset by an image of social responsibility which has a positive impact on sales. By giving benefits I dont believe that this makes the business socially acceptable, because children shouldnt have to work for basic entitlements. This is where the government should be involved and help to provide with these entitlements. In conclusion of the essay I have found that child labour effects business image mainly and which way it is perceived by the public in their own views of what is justifiable and what is not, is what affects sales which hence affects profits. Majority of the public think that child labour was abolished in 1989 but it is still continued to be found in the 21st century today in large multinational companies mainly and needs to be intervened by more enforcements by the government.